The Diné
Brigadier
General James H. Carleton arrived in New
Mexico near the end of the Civil War. The Confederate
forces in the area had already been defeated so the union commander set about
dealing with the local Indians. The Navajo were a primary target for Carleton’s
subordinate, Colonel ‘Kit’ Carson. Colonel Carson attacked the Navajo after
defeating the nearby Apaches. Carson’s
troops drove through Navajo territory, destroying crops, livestock and anything
else that could feed the Navajo. Starving as a result, the majority of the ten
thousand Navajo surrendered the following spring. They then traveled 300 miles
to Bosque Redondo, a place that the U.S. Government had planned for the Indian’s
education, Christianization and civilization. The site of the Navajo’s exile
was poorly planned and did not support the number of people placed there. Then
the government responded to the pleas of the Navajo as well as to the reports
of agents and allowed the Navajo to return to their homeland. The Diné (the name
the Navajo call themselves) returned to a greatly diminished homeland after
three years in Bosque Redondo (Milner, p181). Soon the Diné saw an increase in
the size of their reservation while the Utes (Prucha pg. 542), Apaches (Iverson
pg.73), Paiutes (Franklin
pg 17) and other Indians saw a reduction in their lands. The primary factor
that caused this relative success was the Federal ‘Peace policy’ and the need
to make the Navajo self-sufficient. Secondary and more specific to the Navajo was
three factors; the Navajo and their leaders; the local white traders and the
local U.S.
military.
According
to Francis P. Prucha’s work The Great Father: the United
States government and the American Indians the United States
was going through a religious resurgence just before and following the Civil
War. This affected the Indians by causing great concern about Christian justice
for the Indians within American public opinion. The governmental response to
these increasing demands came to be known as ‘Grant’s Peace Policy’ although it
started before and lasted well after Grant’s term in office. This policy put a
new stress on kindness and peace. The policy attempted to civilize and
Christianize the Indians to prepare them for full American citizenship.
Basically it attempted to turn the Indians into good Christian farmers. The U.S. government
wanted to open up the west to economic growth and nothing represses commerce
like fighting. Thus, a central goal of government was peace (Prucha pg480).
This
was the stated policy regarding all the Indians. Most Indians had lands taking
away yet the Navajo reservation increased in size. One important factor was the
Navajo themselves. The Diné social structure before their defeat and exile was,
like most tribes found throughout history, based on extended family ties. There
was a chief or headman nominally in charge. In contrast, this headman had no
coercive powers. He had to rely on persuasion to get the others to obey his
lead. The dine prized individual freedom and responsibility. They had no
‘Navajo Tribal Government’ before 1868. This changed during their time in Bosque
Redondo.
During
the time in exile, Special Agent John Ward tried to start a Navajo
organization. He divided the Navajo into districts based on the clans of the
old homeland. Each group would elect a headman to the Navajo Tribal Council.
This council would the elect a Head Chief. Each headman was in charge of and responsible
for all the people within his district (Young pg 23).
For
the first time, the U.S.
government had someone to rely on to enforce policies and to voice complaints.
The Navajo proved to be less easily manipulated than hoped. There was plenty of
passive resistance by the headmen and the individuals within the districts. But
the Navajo had the beginnings of a government and agent Ward’s rough plan would
eventually be adopted by the Navajo in 1930. Ward wrote;
The
foregoing propositions, once properly established, would serve as a foundation
step toward forming a government of the people, something they have never seen
before. Indeed, not even the shadow of a government has ever existed among them
up to this time… (Young pg 35)
Unfortunately
(or fortunately), the grand experiment at Rosque Redondo that tried to turn the
Navajo into good Christian farmers failed. It was doomed by poor crops and
overcrowding. It soon became clear that this location would not become self
sufficient for a long while, if ever. Thus, the budget-conscious U.S. government
sent the Navajo back to their original homeland (McPherson pg 41).
During
the time in exile the Navajo began to form a more centralized government. This
change was guided by the local whites, but the Navajo took what they liked as
their own. The Diné were lead by two important chiefs: Hastiin Ch’in Haajin AKA
Manuelito and Ganado Mucho in the early years and Addiits’s’I Sani AKA Henry Chee
Dodge who was appointed Head Chief of the Navajo on April 19th 1884.
Chee could speak fluently in English and Navajo and, as a result, he did not
need to rely on translators (Young pg45). Thus, Chee was an excellent
ambassador between the American and Diné cultures. This aided in his ability to
correct misunderstandings and reduce tensions between the two peoples.
The
Navajo leaders often took the lead when encountering possible threats. In
december1871, a Navajo stole a few horses from a neighboring Zuni Indian. The
local headman, Chicquito, was aware that something had to be done to prevent
retaliation. He stepped in, searched for the stolen livestock, and quickly
returned them. Hence a renewal of the feud with the Zuni was prevented (Moore pg 90). Likewise,
Navajo leaders often interceded to prevent violence. Near his death in 1893,
Ex-Head Chief Manuelito is reported to have asked Chee to prevent the Diné from
destroying themselves by fighting the US
government (Moore
pg 273). The Navajo leaders were acutely aware of their fate if violence broke
out. Thus the Navajo Leaders helped maintain the peace that was a very
important aspect to Grant’s Policy.
The
military was caught in the middle of the various factions. It was charged with
keeping peace in a lawless land. Apaches, Utes, Mormons, wild cat miners,
Paiutes, Hopi, White settlers, Mexican American farmers, federal employees,
outlaws and of course, Navajos all conflicted. The Army fought several wars
with the local Indian tribes such as the Apaches (Milner pg 690). The Navajo
were defeated once and never fought again (Moore pg 118). There were several times when
the Navajo threatened revolt and potential uprisings were never far from the
local military minds. A Navajo revolt was greatly feared for two reasons. First
was the large size of the Diné nation. There were as much as twenty thousand
Navajo as early as 1872 (Moore
pg 121). This meant that the Navajos could raise a large, skilled force that
could help or hurt the army. At one time a Navajo chief mentioned that he could
raise 500 to a thousand warriors to aid the army against the Apaches (Moore pg 125). The offer
may have been a boast, but it shows the possible value to the US military and
a potential ally in keeping the peace. In contrast the Navajo could also be a
frightful obstacle to peace and any economic progress in the area.
Second was the fact that many of the Navajo
had served with the army against other Indian tribes such as the Apache (Moore pg 120). In 1872, a
group of Navajos volunteered to help track outlaw Apaches for no pay. They just
wanted to practice the “old ways” again (Moore
pg 120). This free assistance also helped to make the Navajo the first choice
for tracking outlaw Indians. In consequence, they were very familiar with the
army personnel, weapons and tactics. This fact added another factor into the
equation. Since the Navajo scouts had served with the army they were known
personally by the soldiers. They were not just nameless Indians. This respect
and friendliness helped defuse anti-Indian tension and thus caused the army
personnel additional reluctance to anger the Diné. This closeness served both
the army and the Navajos well. The army gained able scouts against troublesome
tribes and the Navajos gained an invaluable ally in the US government.
Both of these helped to maintain the peace.
Many
times in history an Indian tribe was in the legal right but lost land. In 1877
the Poncas tribe of the northern Great Plains
lost their lands because of a treaty with the Sioux. The courts declared the
Poncas were wronged but nothing could be done so they were moved to the Indian Territory (Prucha pg568). Although the Poncas had
some civilian help they lacked governmental assistance. In contrast, in 1889,
there was a conflict between the Navajos and about twenty white settler
families that had settled a fertile area near the San Juan
River (area D on the map below). The area had been added to the
Navajo reservation, and the military properly policed the removal of the
settlers. The Navajo had armed themselves and were confronting the settlers.
Although the Navajo were careful not to actually use violence, they used the
threat of it. (McPherson pg265) The Navajo were allowed to act in such an
aggressive manner thanks to their relation with the US government. Thus the Navajo
protected the expansion of their lands.
Map source: Iverson pg 72.
The
Navajo Culture was stronger and more hopeful that other tribes. They did not
quickly convert to Christianity. This greatly irked the missionaries. Like wise
they rejected the ‘Ghost Dance” cult in 1889 (Moore pg 316). This reluctance saved them
from the possible danger of fearful White American neighbors and kept the peace.
Additionally, this strong and assimilating culture of the Navajos allowed them
to befriend local Whites. These men married Navajo women and had children. The
more prominent of there merchants would become rich from the Navajo trade.
These men would also prove invaluable to the Navajo in dealing with the great
influx of Americans and the U.S.
government. The traders helped the Navajo not only because the Indians were
their customers but also because they were family. Additionally, the traders
brought much desired goods to the Navajo and brought Navajo merchandize into
the greater American economy.
In
1878 the Utes lost land after violence broke out. The agent H.E. Danforth was a
well meaning but culturally insensitive man. He inadvertently angered the Utes
by planting crops in a grazing area. When the angry Utes started protesting he
asked for assistance from the local military. Some Utes ambushed the detachment
of troops sent, killed them and then preceded to kill the agent and several
agency personnel. The US
then sent in a larger force, calm was established and the Utes were forced to
sign a treaty surrendering land and any Indians connected to the violence (Prucha
pg 452). In contrast to the Utes, in 1873 the factors of the army, local
traders and Navajo leaders came together in the instance of a threat to Navajo
lands in the form of an arrogant and corrupt agent by the name of William F. M.
Arney. The agent was removed by the coordination of the three factors. The
military showed restraint and ignored the pleas of the sometimes frantic agent
when that agent was confronted by protesting Indians. Also the military leaders
spoke to Washington
on behalf of the Navajo and helped calm any fears of a Navajo revolt. In August
19th Colonel John Gregg at fort Defiance
stated that reports of “restlessness” among the Navajos:
Indicate trouble unless the Indian
Department takes prompt measures to remedy the grievances of which they
complain. I do not anticipate a general outbreak but am apprehensive that,
smarting under a sense of injustice, they will scatter in small bands over the
country, committing depredations on innocent settlers. I have instructed the
post commander at Fort Wingate to communicate with the principal chiefs and
express to them my gratification at their moderation and hope they will
continue to exercise patience until their grievances can be placed before their
Great Father in Washington.
(Primary Ref)
The
traders warned the chiefs of the agent’s plots as well as helped the Diné
navigate the American culture. The Navajo showed restraint and unwillingness to
use deadly force. They succeeded in ousting the agent by appealing directly to Washington thanks to the
help of the merchants and military. (Moore
pg154)Thus the Navajo learned that they had some control over their fate. The
Navajo did not resort to violence and the military did not overreact in
response. Unlike in the Utes situation, peace was maintained and the Navajo did
not lose land.
The
Peace Policy of the United
States was the predominant cause for the
increase in land for the Navajo. The desire by the government for the Indians
to become self sufficient and peaceful was not specific to the Navajo. Other
Indian tribes saw their lands taken away and yet the Diné did not. The important
factors of; the Diné and their leaders, local merchants and military personnel
contributed to the Navajo keeping the peace. Since there was not an escalation
in violence there was no excuse to take Navajo lands. Also, since the Navajo
had been peaceful, there was no reason not to grant them land when the idea was
proposed in Washington.
Peace is good for business and economic expansion in the west was the
underlining goal of the Peace Policy. In the end, the reason that Navajo lands
increased was that the Navajo did not get in the way of Americans making money.
They kept the peace and they kept their land.
Bibliography
Young,
Robert, A political history of the Navajo tribe, Tsaile, Arizona, Navajo
Community College Press, 1978.
Moore,
William H., Chiefs, agents & soldiers: conflict on the Navajo frontier,
1868-1882, Albuquerque, New
Mexico, University
of New Mexico Press,
1994.
McPherson,
Robert S., The northern Navajo frontier, 1960-1900 : expansion through
adversity, Logan, Utah, Utah State University Press, 2001.
Prucha,
Francis P., The Great Father: the
United States government and the American Indian, Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press, 1984
(ACLS E-book @ mutex.gmu.edu:2493)
Iverson,
Peter, Diné, a history of the Navajos, Albuquerque, New Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, 2002.
Milner,
O’conner, Sandweiss, The Oxford History of
the American West, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
Franklin, Robert J., Bunte, Pamela A., The Paiute, New York, Chelsea House, 1990.